Photovoltaic systems engineering

In just the last few years, the increase in worldwide photovoltaic (PV) shipments has grown from 15 to 25 percent per year. Grid-connected applications have surpassed stand-alone applications, system components have realized significant improvements, and major efforts are underway to build a quality control infrastructure for PV systems. Such rapid growth and evolution continues to put engineers skilled in PV systems at a premium.

Thoroughly updated, Photovoltaic Systems Engineering, Second Edition offers a practical engineering basis for PV system design. It provides quick exposure to all system building blocks, then examines both the whys and hows of the electrical, mechanical, economic, and aesthetic aspects of PV system design-why certain designs are done in certain ways and how the design process is implemented. Students mastering the contents of this book will have the engineering judgement needed to make intelligent decisions based on a clear understanding of the parameters involved in PV systems.

Highlights of the Second Edition:

Y Complete updates to each chapter that incorporate currently available system components and recent changes in codes and standards
Y Increased emphasis on design trade-offs and the design of grid-connected systems
Y New discussions on site evaluation, and battery connections
Y A new section on array mounting system design
Y A new section on utility interactive residential PV systems
Y A new section on curve fitting using Excel
Y A new appendix that presents a recommended format for submitting PV design packages for permitting or design review purposes
Y Examples and exercises replaced or modified to incorporate contemporary components, such as the Linear Current Booster

Author Notes

Roger Messenger is professor of Electrical Engineering at Florida Atlantic University in Boca Raton, Florida
Jerry Ventre is director of the Photovoltaics and Distributed Generation Division of the Florida Solar Energy Center (FSEC), a research institute of the University of Central Florida

Chapter 1 Background
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Energy Units	p. 2
1.3 Current World Energy Use Patterns	p. 2
1.4 Exponential Growth	p. 6
1.4.1 Introduction	p. 6
1.4.2 Compound Interest	p. 7
1.4.3 Doubling Time	p. 7
1.4.4 Accumulation	p. 9
1.4.5 Resource Lifetime in an Exponential Environment	p. 10
1.4.6 The Decaying Exponential	p. 12
1.4.7 Hubbert's Gaussian Model	p. 12
1.5 Net Energy, Btu Economics and the Test for Sustainability	p. 14
1.6 Direct Conversion of Sunlight to Electricity with Photovoltaics	p. 15
Problems	p. 17
References	p. 19
Suggested Reading	p. 20
Chapter 2 The Sun
2.1 Introduction	p. 21
2.2 The Solar Spectrum	p. 21
2.3 The Effect of Atmosphere on Sunlight	p. 23
2.4 Insolation Specifics	p. 25
2.4.1 Introduction	p. 25
2.4.2 The Orbit and Rotation of the Earth	p. 26
2.4.3 Tracking the Sun	p. 29
2.4.4 Measuring Sunlight	p. 31
2.5 Capturing Sunlight	p. 35
2.5.1 Maximizing Irradiation on the Collector	p. 35
2.5.2 Shading	p. 38
2.5.3 Special Orientation Consideration	p. 39
Problems	p. 42
References	p. 45
Suggested Reading	p. 45
Chapter 3 Introduction to PV Systems
3.1 Introduction	p. 47
3.2 The PV Cell	p. 47
3.3 The PV Module	p. 52
3.4 The PV Array	p. 56
3.5 Energy Storage	p. 57
3.5.1 Introduction	p. 57
3.5.2 The Lead-Acid Storage Battery	p. 57
3.5.3 The Nickel Cadmium Storage Battery	p. 64
3.5.4 Other Battery Systems	p. 66
3.5.5 Hydrogen Storage	p. 67
3.5.6 The Fuel Cell	p. 68
3.5.7 Other Storage Options	p. 70
3.6 PV System Loads	p. 70
3.7 PV System Availability	p. 72
3.8 Associated System Electronic Components	p. 75
3.8.1 Introduction	p. 75
3.8.2 Charge Controllers	p. 76
3.8.3 Maximum Power Trackers and Linear Current Boosters	p. 80
3.8.4 Inverters	p. 83
3.9 Generators	p. 92
3.9.1 Introduction	p. 92
3.9.2 Types and Sizes of Generators	p. 93
3.9.3 Generator Operating Characteristics	p. 94
3.9.4 Generator Maintenance	p. 97
3.9.5 Generator Selection	p. 97
3.10 Wiring and Code Compliance	p. 98
3.10.1 Introduction	p. 98
3.10.2 The National Electrical Code	p. 98
3.10.3 IEEE Standard 929-2000	p. 103
3.11 Balance of System Components	p. 105
Problems	p. 105
References	p. 109
Suggested Reading	p. 110
Chapter 4 PV System Examples
4.1 Introduction	p. 111
4.2 Example 1: A Simple PV-Powered Fan	p. 111
4.2.1 The Simplest Configuration: Module and Fan	p. 111
4.2.2 PV Fan with Battery Backup	p. 114
4.3 Example 2: A PV-Powered Water Pumping System with Linear Current Booster	p. 116
4.3.1 Determination of System Component Requirements	p. 116
4.3.2 A Simple Pumping System	p. 119
4.3.3 Alternative Design Approach for Simple Pumping System	p. 121
4.4 Example 3: A PV-Powered Area Lighting System	p. 122
4.4.1 Determination of the Lighting Load	p. 122
4.4.2 An Outdoor Lighting System	p. 124
4.5 Example 4: A PV-Powered Remote Cabin	p. 126
4.6 Example 5: A Hybrid System	p. 128
4.7 Example 6: A Utility Interactive System	p. 130
4.7.1 Introduction	p. 130
4.7.2 A Simple Utility Interactive System with No Battery Storage	p. 132
4.8 Example 7: A Cathodic Protection System	p. 134
4.8.1 Introduction	p. 134
4.8.2 System Design	p. 135
4.9 Example 8: A Portable Highway Advisory Sign	p. 138
4.9.1 Introduction	p. 138
4.9.2 Determination of Available Average Power	p. 139
Problems	p. 141
References	p. 143
Suggested Reading	p. 143
Chapter 5 Cost Considerations
5.1 Introduction	p. 145
5.2 Life Cycle Costing	p. 145
5.2.1 The Time Value of Money	p. 145
5.2.2 Present Worth Factors and Present Worth	p. 148
5.2.3 Life Cycle Cost	p. 149
5.2.4 Annualized Life Cycle Cost	p. 151
5.2.5 Unit Electrical Cost	p. 152
5.3 Borrowing Money	p. 152
5.3.1 Introduction	p. 152
5.3.2 Determination of Annual Payments on Borrowed Money	p. 152
5.3.3 The Effect of Borrowing on Life Cycle Cost	p. 154
5.4 Externalities	p. 155
5.4.1 Introduction	p. 155
5.4.2 Subsidies	p. 156
5.4.3 Externalities and Photovoltaics	p. 157
Problems	p. 157
References	p. 158
Suggested Reading	p. 158
Chapter 6 Mechanical Considerations
6.1 Introduction	p. 159
6.2 Important Properties of Materials	p. 159
6.2.1 Introduction	p. 159
6.2.2 Mechanical Properties	p. 161
6.2.3 Stress and Strain	p. 163
6.2.4 Strength of Materials	p. 166
6.2.5 Column Buckling	p. 167
6.2.6 Thermal Expansion and Contraction	p. 167
6.2.7 Chemical Corrosion and Ultraviolet Degradation	p. 169
6.2.8 Properties of Steel	p. 172
6.2.9 Properties of Aluminum	p. 173
6.3 Establishing Mechanical System Requirements	p. 174
6.3.1 Mechanical System Design Process	p. 174
6.3.2 Functional Requirements	p. 175
6.3.3 Operational Requirements	p. 176
6.3.4 Constraints	p. 176
6.3.5 Tradeoffs	p. 177
6.4 Design and Installation Guidelines	p. 177
6.4.1 Standards and Codes	p. 177
6.4.2 Building Code Requirements	p. 179
6.5 Forces Acting on Photovoltaic Arrays	p. 179
6.5.1 Structural Loading Considerations	p. 179
6.5.2 Dead Loads	p. 180
6.5.3 Live Loads	p. 181
6.5.4 Wind Loads	p. 181
6.5.5 Snow Loads	p. 189
6.5.6 Other Loads	p. 189
6.6 Array Mounting System Design	p. 190
6.6.1 Introduction	p. 190
6.6.2 Objectives in Designing the Array Mounting System	p. 190
6.6.3 Enhancing Array Performance	p. 193
6.6.4 Roof-Mounted Arrays	p. 194
6.6.5 Ground-Mounted Arrays	p. 197
6.6.6 Aesthetics	p. 199
6.7 Computing Mechanical Loads and Stresses	p. 200
6.7.1 Introduction	p. 200
6.7.2 Withdrawal Loads	p. 200
6.7.3 Tensile Stresses	p. 201
6.7.4 Buckling	p. 202
6.8 Summary	p. 203
Problems	p. 204
References	p. 207
Suggested Reading	p. 208
Chapter 7 Stand-Alone PV Systems
7.1 Introduction	p. 209
7.2 A Critical Need Refrigeration System	p. 210
7.2.1 Design Specifications	p. 210
7.2.2 Design Implementation	p. 210
7.3 A PV-Powered Mountain Cabin	p. 224
7.3.1 Design Specifications	p. 224
7.3.2 Design Implementation	p. 225
7.4 A Hybrid Powered Residence	p. 235
7.4.1 Design Specifications	p. 235
7.4.2 Design Implementation	p. 236
7.5 Seasonal or Periodic Battery Discharge	p. 248
7.6 Battery Connections	p. 249
7.7 Computer Programs	p. 253
Problems	p. 254
References	p. 257
Suggested Reading	p. 257
Chapter 8 Utility Interactive PV Systems
8.1 Introduction	p. 259
8.2 Nontechnical Barriers to Utility Interactive PV Systems	p. 260
8.2.1 Cost of PV Arrays	p. 260
8.2.2 Cost of Balance of System Components	p. 261
8.2.3 Standardization of Interconnection Requirements	p. 262
8.2.4 PV System Installation Considerations	p. 262
8.2.5 Metering of PV System Output	p. 263
8.3 Technical Considerations for Connecting to the Grid	p. 264
8.3.1 Introduction	p. 264
8.3.2 IEEE Standard 929-2000 Issues	p. 265
8.3.3 National Electrical Code Considerations	p. 271
8.3.4 Other Issues	p. 279
8.4 Small ([less than sign]10 kW) Utility Interactive PV Systems	p. 281
8.4.1 Introduction	p. 281
8.4.2 Array Installation	p. 283
8.4.3 PCU Selection and Mounting	p. 283
8.4.4 Other Installation Considerations	p. 284
8.4.5 A 2.5 kW Residential Rooftop Utility Interactive PV System	p. 285
8.4.6 A Residential Rooftop System Using AC Modules	p. 289
8.4.7 A 4800 W Residential Rooftop System with Battery Storage	p. 290
8.5 Medium Utility Interactive PV Systems	p. 299
8.5.1 Introduction	p. 299
8.5.2 A 16 kW Commercial Rooftop System	p. 299
8.6 Large Utility Interactive PV Systems	p. 303
8.6.1 Introduction	p. 303
8.6.2 A Large Parking Lot PV System	p. 303
Problems	p. 312
References	p. 316
Suggested Reading	p. 317
Chapter 9 Externalities and Photovoltaics
9.1 Introduction	p. 319
9.2 Externalities	p. 319
9.3 Environmental Effects of Energy Sources	p. 321
9.3.1 Introduction	p. 321
9.3.2 Air Pollution	p. 322
9.3.3 Water and Soil Pollution	p. 323
9.3.4 Infrastructure Degradation	p. 324
9.3.5 Quantifying the Cost of Externalities	p. 324
9.3.6 Health and Safety as Externalities	p. 328
9.4 Externalities Associated with PV Systems	p. 328
9.4.1 Environmental Effects of PV System Production	p. 328
9.4.2 Environmental Effects of PV System Deployment and Operation	p. 330
9.4.3 Environmental Effects of PV System Decommissioning	p. 331
Problems	p. 332
References	p. 332
Chapter 10 The Physics of Photovoltaic Cells
10.1 Introduction	p. 335
10.2 Optical Absorption	p. 335
10.2.1 Introduction	p. 335
10.2.2 Semiconductor Materials	p. 335
10.2.3 Generation of EHP by Photo Absorption	p. 337
10.2.4 Photoconductors	p. 339
10.3 Extrinsic Semiconductors and the pn Junction	p. 341
10.3.1 Extrinsic Semiconductors	p. 341
10.3.2 The pn Junction	p. 343
10.4 Maximizing PV Cell Performance	p. 352
10.4.1 Introduction	p. 352
10.4.2 Minimizing the Reverse Saturation Current	p. 352
10.4.3 Optimizing Photocurrent	p. 353
10.4.4 Minimizing Cell Resistance Losses	p. 362
10.5 Exotic Junctions	p. 364
10.5.1 Introduction	p. 364
10.5.2 Graded Junctions	p. 364
10.5.3 Heterojunctions	p. 366
10.5.4 Schottky Junctions	p. 366
10.5.5 Multijunctions	p. 369
10.5.6 Tunnel Junctions	p. 369
Problems	p. 371
References	p. 372
Chapter 11 Present and Proposed PV Cells
11.1 Introduction	p. 373
11.2 Silicon PV Cells	p. 374
11.2.1 Production of Pure Silicon	p. 375
11.2.2 Single Crystal Silicon Cells	p. 376
11.2.3 Multicrystalline Silicon Cells	p. 383
11.2.4 Buried Contact Silicon Cells	p. 384
11.2.5 Other Thin Silicon Cells	p. 386
11.2.6 Amorphous Silicon Cells	p. 386
11.3 Gallium Arsenide Cells	p. 389
11.3.1 Introduction	p. 389
11.3.2 Production of Pure Cell Components	p. 389
11.3.3 Fabrication of the Gallium Arsenide Cell	p. 392
11.3.4 Cell Performance	p. 394
11.4 Copper Indium (Gallium) Diselenide Cells	p. 394
11.4.1 Introduction	p. 394
11.4.2 Production of Pure Cell Components	p. 395
11.4.3 Fabrication of the CIS Cell	p. 398
11.4.4 Cell Performance	p. 400
11.5 Cadmium Telluride Cells	p. 401
11.5.1 Introduction	p. 401
11.5.2 Production of Pure Tellurium	p. 402
11.5.3 Production of the CdTe Cell	p. 402
11.5.4 Cell Performance	p. 404
11.6 Emerging Technologies	p. 404
11.6.1 New Developments in Silicon Technology	p. 404
11.6.2 CIS-Family-Based Absorbers	p. 406
11.6.3 Other III-V and II-VI Emerging Technologies	p. 407
11.6.4 Other Technologies	p. 408
11.6.5 Summary	p. 410
Problems	p. 410
References	p. 411
Suggested Reading	p. 413
Appendix A Average Daily Irradiation for Selected Cities	p. 415
Appendix B A Partial Listing of PV-Related Web Sites	p. 431
Appendix C Design Review Checklist	p. 433
Index	p. 437

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