Enzymes in food technology

Enzymes in Food Technology offers an overview of the rapidly expanding field of enzyme applications in food technology. It discusses the widespread use of enzymes in food processing improvement and innovation and explains the benefit of enzymes. The material focuses on enzymes that are produced, formulated, and "packaged" for exogenous applications, rather than on the manipulation of the indigenous enzymes in food raw materials. This book links the properties of different enzymes with the physical and biochemical events that they influence in food and relates these to the key nutritional, sensory, and shelf-life qualities of foods.

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In their introduction, editors Whitehurst and Law refer to enzymes as "useful and targeted workforces," and the purpose of their book is to describe how enzymes can be "trained" to carry out specific tasks in the food and drink industry. There are more than a dozen contributors (mainly European food scientists) to this small volume, one in a series of texts aimed at food and beverage industry professionals. The brief introductory chapter serves to orient readers to the use of enzymes in food chemistry, and although enzyme structure and kinetics are covered, the discussion is not sufficiently detailed for a reader not already well versed in enzyme science. The remaining chapters are organized by specific food product--bread and pasta, beer, wine, dairy products, fruit and vegetable juice, fruit processing, and starch modification. The final chapter describes how enzymes are processed for commercial use from animal, plant, and microbe sources. The discussion of genetically modified enzymes in food technology is very brief. Chapter references are adequate but not extensive. Illustrations are black-and-white simple graphs or simple line drawings. Professionals. K. Cornely Providence College

Barry A. LawJoan Qi Si and Cornelia Drost-LustenbergerDiederik J. M. Schmedding and Mari J. M. C. van GestelMaarten van Oort and Rose-Marie Canal-LlauberesBarry A. LawPer Munk Nielsen and Hans Sejr OlsenReinhold UrlaubCatherine Grassin and Pierre FauquembergueHans Sejr OlsenRichie Piggott

1 The nature of enzymes and their action in foods	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Enzymes in food	p. 2
1.2.1 Enzyme nomenclature	p. 2
1.2.2 Enzyme kinetics	p. 3
1.2.3 Enzyme (in)stability	p. 6
1.2.4 Composition and activity of commercial enzyme preparations	p. 8
1.3 Sources and range of enzymes for food technology	p. 9
1.4 Food enzyme legislation	p. 14
1.5 Modification of food enzyme activity by protein engineering	p. 16
1.6 Summary and conclusions	p. 18
References	p. 18
2 Enzymes for bread, pasta and noodle products	p. 19
2.1 Introduction	p. 19
2.2 Bread	p. 19
2.2.1 Fungal alpha-amylases	p. 20
2.2.2 Amylases to extend shelf life	p. 21
2.2.3 Xylanases/pentosanases/hemicellulases	p. 28
2.2.4 Lipase	p. 31
2.2.5 Oxidases	p. 33
2.2.6 Synergistic effects of enzymes	p. 34
2.2.7 Enzymes for frozen dough and part-baked bead	p. 39
2.3 Enzymes for Asian noodles and non-durum pasta	p. 46
2.3.1 Reducing speckiness	p. 46
2.3.2 Increasing brightness and colour stability	p. 46
2.3.3 Improving texture	p. 48
2.3.4 Mechanisms for the effect of lipase	p. 51
Acknowledgement	p. 54
References	p. 54
3 Enzymes in brewing	p. 57
3.1 Introduction	p. 57
3.1.1 History of brewing	p. 57
3.2 Raw materials	p. 58
3.2.1 Malt and adjuncts	p. 58
3.2.2 Hops	p. 59
3.2.3 Yeast	p. 59
3.2.4 Water	p. 59
3.2.5 Exogenous enzymes as processing aids	p. 59
3.3 The processes of malting and brewing	p. 60
3.3.1 The malting process	p. 61
3.3.2 Malt specification	p. 61
3.3.3 The brewing process	p. 62
3.4 Enzymes in the brewing process	p. 64
3.4.1 Enzymes in malting	p. 64
3.4.2 Enzymes in mashing	p. 66
3.4.3 Enzymes in adjunct cooking	p. 70
3.4.4 Enzymes in lautering/mash filtration	p. 70
3.4.5 Enzymes in fermentation	p. 71
3.4.6 Enzymes in maturation	p. 73
3.4.7 Chill proofing enzymes	p. 73
3.4.8 Future developments	p. 74
Acknowledgements	p. 75
Further reading	p. 75
4 Enzymes in wine production	p. 76
4.1 Introduction	p. 76
4.2 Legal aspects of the use of enzymes in winemaking	p. 76
4.2.1 Recommendations from international organisations	p. 77
4.3 Enzymes in winemaking: history and definitions	p. 77
4.4 Enzyme properties and composition	p. 78
4.5 Applications of enzymes	p. 79
4.5.1 Enzymes for pressing and maceration	p. 80
4.6 Enzyme applications for white and pink wine grape varieties	p. 81
4.7 Enzyme applications for red wine grape varieties	p. 83
4.8 Enzyme applications for must and press wines: clarification enzymes	p. 83
4.9 Enzyme applications for young wines: maturation and filtration enzymes	p. 84
4.10 Enzyme preparations for aroma liberation	p. 85
4.11 Enzymes for colour extraction	p. 87
4.12 Other enzymes used in winemaking	p. 87
4.12.1 Urease	p. 87
4.12.2 Lysozyme	p. 88
4.13 New developments	p. 88
4.13.1 Cork cleaning	p. 88
4.13.2 Colour stabilisation	p. 88
4.13.3 Health issues	p. 89
4.14 Conclusions	p. 89
References	p. 89
5 Enzymes in the manufacture of dairy products	p. 90
5.1 Introduction	p. 90
5.2 Milk-clotting enzymes	p. 90
5.2.1 The nature and identity of rennets and coagulants	p. 91
5.2.2 Main characteristics of rennets and coagulants from different sources	p. 92
5.2.3 Production of rennets and coagulants	p. 95
5.2.4 Formulation and standardisation of rennets and coagulants	p. 96
5.3 Lactoperoxidase	p. 96
5.4 Cheese ripening enzymes	p. 97
5.4.1 Types of enzymes available commercially	p. 97
5.4.2 Enzyme addition technology	p. 99
5.4.3 Enzyme-modified cheese (EMC) technology	p. 101
5.5 Lysozyme	p. 103
5.6 Transglutaminase	p. 104
5.7 Lipase	p. 104
5.7.1 Lipolysed milk fat (LMF)	p. 104
5.7.2 Lipase-catalysed intra- and intermolecular modification of milk fat	p. 105
5.8 Lactase	p. 105
5.8.1 Commercial dairy products of lactase technology	p. 107
References	p. 107
6 Enzymic modification of food protein	p. 109
6.1 Introduction	p. 109
6.2 Industrial proteases	p. 109
6.3 Protein hydrolysis in enzyme applications	p. 110
6.3.1 Control of hydrolysis reaction	p. 111
6.3.2 Calculation of the degree of hydrolysis of proteins using the pH-stat technique	p. 112
6.3.3 Calculation of the degree of hydrolysis of proteins using the osmometry technique	p. 114
6.3.4 Some kinetic aspects of protein hydrolysis	p. 114
6.3.5 The effect of proteolysis	p. 116
6.4 The bitterness problem	p. 117
6.4.1 Other off-flavour problems related to bitterness	p. 118
6.5 Protein hydrolysis for food processing	p. 119
6.5.1 Inactivation of enzyme activity and downstream processing	p. 120
6.6 Functional protein hydrolysates	p. 122
6.7 Low allergenic peptides for baby food formulae	p. 124
6.8 Meat extracts	p. 125
6.9 Bone cleaning	p. 127
6.9.1 Hydrolysis of meat protein in relation to bone cleaning	p. 127
6.10 Enzymatic tenderisation of meat	p. 129
6.11 Modification of wheat gluten	p. 130
6.12 Use of membranes in protein hydrolysis processes	p. 131
6.12.1 Functional protein hydrolysates	p. 131
6.12.2 Low molecular weight hydrolysates	p. 132
6.12.3 The membrane reactor	p. 133
6.13 Flavour enhancers	p. 134
6.13.1 Production of flavour enhancers	p. 134
6.13.2 Enzymatically hydrolysed vegetable proteins (e-HVP)	p. 135
6.13.3 Hydrolysed animal proteins (e-HVP)	p. 135
6.14 Yeast extracts	p. 136
6.15 Fish processes	p. 137
6.16 Protein cross-linking in food processing	p. 138
6.16.1 Applications of transglutaminase	p. 139
References	p. 140
7 Enzymes in fruit and vegetable juice extraction	p. 144
7.1 Introduction	p. 144
7.2 The legal situation	p. 145
7.3 Definitions and characteristics	p. 146
7.4 Pectins	p. 147
7.4.1 Smooth-region pectinases	p. 148
7.4.2 Hairy-region pectinases	p. 149
7.5 Cellulose and hemicellulose	p. 150
7.6 Starch	p. 151
7.7 Protein	p. 153
7.8 Application of technical enzyme products	p. 154
7.9 Pome fruit processing	p. 155
7.9.1 Enzymatic treatment of the mash	p. 157
7.9.2 Pomace extraction	p. 158
7.9.3 Maceration	p. 159
7.9.4 Pomace maceration	p. 160
7.9.5 Juice treatment	p. 161
7.9.6 Traditional clarification and filtration	p. 165
7.9.7 Ultrafiltration of apple juice	p. 166
7.9.8 Cloudy apple juice or apple juice concentrate	p. 167
7.10 Grapes	p. 168
7.10.1 Processing of Concord grapes	p. 168
7.10.2 Manufacturing white grape juice and grape juice concentrate	p. 169
7.11 Berries	p. 170
7.12 Stone fruit	p. 172
7.13 Citrus fruit	p. 172
7.13.1 Wesos	p. 173
7.13.2 Citrus juice concentrates	p. 175
7.13.3 Clear and semi-cloudy citrus concentrates	p. 176
7.13.4 Extraction of citrus oil	p. 177
7.13.5 Cloudifier	p. 178
7.14 Tropical fruit	p. 179
7.15 Vegetables	p. 181
7.16 Membrane cleaning	p. 182
References	p. 182
8 Enzymes in fruit processing	p. 184
8.1 Citrus peeling	p. 184
8.2 Citrus peel processing	p. 186
8.3 Fruit firming	p. 187
8.3.1 Strawberries	p. 194
8.3.2 Tomato	p. 196
References	p. 199
9 Enzymes in starch modification	p. 200
9.1 Introduction	p. 200
9.2 Processing and enzymology	p. 201
9.2.1 Starch liquefaction	p. 201
9.2.2 alpha-Amylases	p. 204
9.2.3 Saccharification of liquefied starch	p. 210
9.2.4 Tailor-made glucose syrups	p. 210
9.2.5 Use of syrups	p. 211
9.2.6 Production of maltose syrups	p. 213
9.2.7 DX, DE and reducing value	p. 213
9.2.8 High conversion syrup	p. 214
9.2.9 Production of high dextrose syrups	p. 215
9.2.10 Amyloglucosidase/pullulanus combination in the production of high dextrose syrup	p. 216
9.2.11 Continuous saccharification	p. 217
9.2.12 Continuous saccharification in a membrane reactor	p. 218
9.3 Enzymes as processing aids in the purification of saccharified wheat starch	p. 218
9.4 Glucose isomerisation	p. 219
9.4.1 The isomerisation reaction	p. 219
9.4.2 Isomerisation conditions	p. 220
9.4.3 Isomerisation temperature	p. 220
9.4.4 Isomerisation pH	p. 220
9.4.5 Isomerisation glucose (dextrose-DX) and fructose concentration	p. 221
9.4.6 The immobilised enzyme system	p. 221
9.4.7 Process lay-out	p. 222
9.4.8 Enzyme decay	p. 224
9.4.9 Controlling isomerisation costs	p. 224
9.5 Use of high-fructose corn syrups (HFCS)	p. 225
9.6 Cyclodextrins	p. 226
9.7 The future	p. 227
9.8 Conclusion	p. 227
References	p. 228
10 Commercial enzyme production and genetic modification of source organisms	p. 229
10.1 Brief history	p. 229
10.2 Sources of commercial enzymes	p. 229
10.2.1 Animal-derived enzymes	p. 230
10.2.2 Plant-derived enzymes	p. 230
10.3 Microbial enzyme fermentation	p. 232
10.4 Preservation of industrial microorganisms	p. 233
10.4.1 Freezing	p. 234
10.4.2 Freeze-drying	p. 234
10.4.3 Subculturing	p. 234
10.5 Inoculum development	p. 234
10.6 Submerged fermentation	p. 235
10.7 Separation of broth	p. 236
10.7.1 Filtration with filter aid	p. 236
10.7.2 Microfiltration	p. 237
10.7.3 Centrifugation	p. 237
10.8 Concentration	p. 237
10.9 Drying	p. 238
10.10 Enzyme formulation	p. 239
10.10.1 Powder blending	p. 239
10.10.2 Liquid blending	p. 240
10.11 Surface culture (Koji) fermentation	p. 240
10.12 Intracellular enzyme production	p. 241
10.13 Genetics of producer organisms	p. 242
Acknowledgements	p. 244
References	p. 244
Index	p. 245

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