Physicochemical treatment processes

The past 30 years have seen the emergence of a growing desire worldwide to take positive actions to restore and protect the environment from the degrading effects of all forms of pollution: air, noise, solid waste, and water. Because pollution is a direct or indirect consequence of waste, the seemingly idealistic demand for "zero discharge" can be construed as an unrealistic demand for zero waste. However, as long as waste exists, we can only attempt to abate the subsequent pollution by converting it to a less noxious form. Three major questions usually arise when a particular type of pollution has been identified: (1) How serious is the pollution? (2) Is the technology to abate it available? and (3) Do the costs of abatement justify the degree of abatement achieved? The principal intention of the Handbook of Environmental Engineering series is to help readers formulate answers to the last two questions. The traditional approach of applying tried-and-true solutions to specific pollution pr- lems has been a major contributing factor to the success of environmental engineering, and has accounted in large measure for the establishment of a "methodology of pollution c- trol. " However, realization of the ever-increasing complexity and interrelated nature of current environmental problems makes it imperative that intelligent planning of pollution abatement systems be undertaken.

Frank J. DeLuise and Lawrence K. Wang and Shoou-Yuh Chang and Yung-Tse HungRamesh K. Goel and Joseph R. V. Flora and J. Paul ChenJ. Paul Chen and Frederick B. Higgins and Shoou-Yuh Chang and Yung-Tse HungNazih K. ShammasLawrence K. Wang and David A. Vaccari and Yan Li and Nazih K. ShammasLawrence K. Wang and Jy S. Wu and Nazih K. Shammas and David A. VaccariNazih K. Shammas and John Y. Yang and Pao-Chiang Yuan and Yung-Tse HungLawrence K. Wang and Pao-Chiang Yuan and Yung-Tse HungNazih K. Shammas and Lawrence K. WangJ. Paul Chen and Shoou-Yuh Chang and Yung-Tse HungNazih K. Shammas and Inder Jit Kumar and Shoou-Yuh Chang and Yung-Tse HungLawrence K. Wang and Edward M. Fahey and Zucheng WuJ. Paul Chen and Shoou-Yuh Chang and Jerry Y. C. Huang and E. Robert Baumann and Yung-Tse HungLawrence K. Wang and Chein-Chi Chang and Nazih K. ShammasYung-Tse Hung and Howard H. Lo and Lawrence K. Wang and Jerry R. Taricska and Kathleen Hung LiSaravanamuthu Vigneswaran and Huu Hao Ngo and Durgananda Singh Chaudhary and Yung-Tse HungDuu-Jong Lee and Joo-Hwa Tay and Yung-Tse Hung and Pin Jing He

Preface	p. v
Contributors	p. xix
1 Screening and Comminution	p. 1
1 Function of Screens and Comminutors	p. 1
2 Types of Screens	p. 2
2.1 Coarse Screens	p. 2
2.2 Fine Screens	p. 2
3 Physical Characteristics and Hydraulic Considerations of Screens	p. 3
4 Cleaning Methods for Screens	p. 5
5 Quality and Disposal for Screens	p. 6
6 Comminutors	p. 7
7 Engineering Specifications and Experience	p. 8
7.1 Professional Association Specifications	p. 8
7.2 Engineering Experience	p. 11
8 Engineering Design	p. 12
8.1 Summary of Screening Design Considerations	p. 12
8.2 Summary of Comminution Design Considerations	p. 14
9 Design Examples	p. 15
9.1 Example 1: Bar Screen Design	p. 15
9.2 Example 2: Bar Screen Head Loss	p. 16
9.3 Example 3: Plugged Bar Screen Head Loss	p. 17
9.4 Example 4: Screen System Design	p. 17
Nomenclature	p. 18
References	p. 18
2 Flow Equalization and Neutralization	p. 21
1 Introduction	p. 21
2 Flow Equalization	p. 21
2.1 Flow Equalization Basin Calculations	p. 23
2.2 Mixing and Aeration Requirements	p. 25
2.3 Mixer Unit	p. 26
3 Neutralization	p. 28
3.1 pH	p. 28
3.2 Acidity and Alkalinity	p. 29
3.3 Buffer Capacity	p. 30
3.4 Hardness	p. 31
4 Neutralization Practices	p. 32
4.1 Neutralization of Acidity	p. 32
4.2 Neutralization of Alkalinity	p. 33
4.3 Common Neutralization Treatments	p. 34
5 pH Neutralization Practices	p. 36
5.1 Passive Neutralization	p. 36
5.2 In-Plant Neutralization	p. 36
5.3 Influent pH Neutralization	p. 36
5.4 In-Process Neutralization	p. 37
5.5 Effluent Neutralization	p. 38
5.6 Chemicals for Neutralization	p. 38
5.7 Encapsulated Phosphate Buffers for In Situ Bioremediation	p. 39
6 Design of a Neutralization System	p. 39
7 Design Examples	p. 40
Nomenclature	p. 43
References	p. 44
3 Mixing	p. 47
1 Introduction	p. 47
2 Basic Concepts	p. 48
2.1 Criteria for Mixing	p. 50
2.2 Mixing Efficiency	p. 52
2.3 Fluid Shear	p. 54
3 Mixing Processes and Equipment	p. 55
3.1 Mixing in Turbulent Fields	p. 55
3.2 Mechanical Mixing Equipment	p. 58
3.3 Impeller Discharge	p. 69
3.4 Motionless Mixers	p. 71
3.5 Mixing in Batch and Continuous Flow Systems	p. 73
3.6 Suspension of Solids	p. 77
3.7 Static Mixer	p. 84
4 Design of Facilities	p. 86
4.1 Pipes, Ducts, and Channels	p. 86
4.2 Self-Induced and Baffled Basins	p. 89
4.3 Mechanically Mixed Systems	p. 90
Nomenclature	p. 99
References	p. 100
4 Coagulation and Flocculation	p. 103
1 Introduction	p. 103
2 Applications of Coagulation	p. 104
2.1 Water Treatment	p. 104
2.2 Municipal Wastewater Treatment	p. 104
2.3 Industrial Waste Treatment	p. 104
2.4 Combined Sewer Overflow	p. 104
2.5 Factors to be Considered in Process Selection	p. 105
3 Properties of Colloidal Systems	p. 105
3.1 Electrokinetic Properties	p. 105
3.2 Hydration	p. 106
3.3 Brownian Movement	p. 106
3.4 Tyndall Effect	p. 106
3.5 Filterability	p. 107
4 Colloidal Structure and Stability	p. 107
5 Destabilization of Colloids	p. 109
5.1 Double-Layer Compression	p. 110
5.2 Adsorption and Charge Neutralization	p. 110
5.3 Entrapment of Particles in Precipitate	p. 111
5.4 Adsorption and Bridging between Particles	p. 111
6 Influencing Factors	p. 112
6.1 Colloid Concentration	p. 112
6.2 Coagulant Dosage	p. 112
6.3 Zeta Potential	p. 112
6.4 Affinity of Colloids for Water	p. 113
6.5 pH Value	p. 113
6.6 Anions in Solution	p. 114
6.7. Cations in Solution	p. 114
6.8. Temperature	p. 114
7 Coagulants	p. 114
7.1 Aluminum Salts	p. 115
7.2 Iron Salts	p. 116
7.3 Sodium Aluminate	p. 116
7.4 Polymeric Inorganic Salts	p. 117
7.5 Organic Polymers	p. 117
7.6 Coagulation Aids	p. 118
8 Coagulation Control	p. 118
8.1 Jar Test	p. 119
8.2 Zetameter	p. 120
8.3 Streaming Current Detector	p. 121
9 Chemical Feeding	p. 121
10 Mixing	p. 122
11 Rapid Mix	p. 124
12 Flocculation	p. 125
13 Design Examples	p. 127
Nomenclature	p. 137
References	p. 138
5 Chemical Precipitation	p. 141
1 Introduction	p. 141
2 Process Description	p. 142
3 Process Types	p. 142
3.1 Hydroxide Precipitation	p. 142
3.2 Sulfide Precipitation	p. 144
3.3 Cyanide Precipitation	p. 145
3.4 Carbonate Precipitation	p. 145
3.5 Coprecipitation	p. 146
3.6 Technology Status	p. 146
4 Chemical Precipitation Principles	p. 146
4.1 Reaction Equilibria	p. 146
4.2 Solubility Equilibria	p. 147
4.3 Ionic Strength and Activity	p. 148
4.4 Ionic Strength Example	p. 149
4.5 Common Ion Effect	p. 150
4.6 Common Ion Effect Example	p. 150
4.7 Soluble Complex Formation	p. 151
4.8 pH Effect	p. 152
4.9 Solubility Diagrams	p. 152
5 Chemical Precipitation Kinetics	p. 152
5.1 Nucleation	p. 153
5.2 Crystal Growth	p. 153
5.3 Aging	p. 154
5.4 Adsorption and Coprecipitation	p. 154
6 Design Considerations	p. 155
6.1 General	p. 155
6.2 Chemical Handling	p. 155
6.3 Mixing, Flocculation, and Contact Equipment	p. 156
6.4 Solids Separation	p. 157
6.5 Design Criteria Summary	p. 157
7 Process Applications	p. 158
7.1 Hydroxide Precipitation	p. 158
7.2 Carbonate Precipitation	p. 159
7.3 Sulfide Precipitation	p. 160
7.4 Cyanide Precipitation	p. 161
7.5 Magnesium Oxide Precipitation	p. 162
7.6 Chemical Oxidation-Reduction Precipitation	p. 162
7.7 Lime/Soda-Ash Softening	p. 162
7.8 Phosphorus Precipitation	p. 162
7.9 Other Chemical Precipitation Processes	p. 163
8 Process Evaluation	p. 163
8.1 Advantages and Limitations	p. 163
8.2 Reliability	p. 164
8.3 Chemicals Required	p. 165
8.4 Residuals Generated	p. 165
8.5 Process Performance	p. 165
9 Application Examples	p. 165
Nomenclature	p. 169
References	p. 170
Appendices	p. 174
6 Recarbonation and Softening	p. 199
1 Introduction	p. 199
2 Process Description	p. 199
3 Softening and Recarbonation Process Chemistry	p. 201
4 Lime/Soda Ash Softening Process	p. 203
5 Water Stabilization	p. 205
6 Other Related Process Applications	p. 206
6.1 Chemical Coagulation Using Magnesium Carbonate as a Coagulant	p. 206
6.2 Recovery of Magnesium as Magnesium Carbonate	p. 207
6.3 Recovery of Calcium Carbonate as Lime	p. 207
6.4 Recarbonation of Chemically Treated Wastewaters	p. 208
7 Process Design	p. 208
7.1 Sources of Carbon Dioxide	p. 208
7.2 Distribution Systems	p. 210
7.3 Carbon Dioxide Quantities	p. 212
7.4 Step-by-Step Design Approach	p. 212
8 Design and Application Examples	p. 215
Nomenclature	p. 226
Acknowledgments	p. 227
References	p. 227
7 Chemical Oxidation	p. 229
1 Introduction	p. 229
1.1 Dissolved Oxygen and Concept of Oxidation	p. 230
1.2 The Definition of Oxidation State	p. 231
2 Theory and Principles	p. 233
2.1 Stoichiometry of Oxidation-Reduction Processes	p. 234
2.2 Thermodynamics of Chemical Oxidation	p. 236
2.3 Kinetic Aspects of Chemical Oxidation	p. 240
3 Oxygenated Reagent Systems	p. 243
3.1 Aeration in Water Purification and Waste Treatment	p. 243
3.2 Hydrogen Peroxide and Peroxygen Reagents	p. 246
3.3 High-Temperature Wet Oxidation	p. 248
4 Transition-Metal Ion Oxidation Systems	p. 256
4.1 Chromic Acid Oxidation	p. 256
4.2 Permanganate Oxidation	p. 258
5 Recent Developments in Chemical Oxidation	p. 261
5.1 Ozone (O 3 ) Processes	p. 261
5.2 Ultraviolet (UV) Processes	p. 262
5.3 Wet Oxidation	p. 263
5.4 Supercritical Water Oxidation	p. 264
5.5 Biological Oxidation	p. 264
6 Examples	p. 264
Nomenclature	p. 268
References	p. 269
8 Halogenation and Disinfection	p. 271
1 Introduction	p. 271
2 Chemistry of Halogenation	p. 274
2.1 Chlorine Hydrolysis	p. 274
2.2 Chlorine Dissociation	p. 275
2.3 Chlorine Reactions with Nitrogenous Matter	p. 275
2.4 Chlorine Reactions with Other Inorganics	p. 279
2.5 Chlorine Dioxide (ClO 2 ) Applications	p. 281
2.6 Chlorine Dioxide Generation	p. 281
2.7 Chlorine Dioxide Reaction with Nitrogenous Matter	p. 282
2.8 Chlorine Dioxide Reactions with Phenolic Compounds and Other Substances	p. 283
2.9 Bromine Hydrolysis	p. 283
2.10 Bromine Dissociation	p. 283
2.11 Bromine Reactions with Nitrogenous Matter	p. 284
2.12 Iodine Hydrolysis	p. 284
2.13 Iodine Dissociation	p. 284
2.14 Iodine Reactions with Nitrogenous Matter	p. 285
3 Disinfection with Halogens	p. 285
3.1 Modes and Rate of Killing in Disinfection Process	p. 285
3.2 Disinfection Conditions	p. 286
3.3 Disinfection Control with Biological Tests	p. 287
3.4 Disinfectant Concentration	p. 288
4 Chlorine and Chlorination	p. 288
4.1 Chlorine Compounds and Elemental Chlorine	p. 289
4.2 Chlorine Feeders	p. 290
4.3 Chlorine Handling Equipment	p. 291
4.4 Measurement of Chlorine Residuals	p. 291
4.5 Chlorine Dosages	p. 292
4.6 Chlorination By-Products	p. 293
5 Chlorine Dioxide Disinfection	p. 294
6 Bromine and Bromination	p. 294
7 Iodine and Iodination	p. 295
8 Ozone and Ozonation	p. 295
9 Cost Data	p. 295
10 Recent Developments in Halogenation Technology	p. 296
10.1 Recent Environmental Concerns and Regulations	p. 296
10.2 Chlorine Dioxide	p. 297
10.3 Chloramines	p. 298
10.4 Coagulant	p. 298
10.5 Ozone	p. 299
10.6 Organic Disinfectants	p. 299
10.7 Ultraviolet (UV)	p. 300
11 Disinfection System Design	p. 300
11.1 Design Considerations Summary	p. 300
11.2 Wastewater Disinfection	p. 301
11.3 Potable Water Disinfection	p. 303
12 Design and Application Examples	p. 305
12.1 Example 1 (Wastewater Disinfection)	p. 305
12.2 Example 2 (Potable Water Disinfection)	p. 308
12.3 Example 3 (Glossary of Halogenation, Chlorination, Oxidation, and Disinfection)	p. 308
Nomenclature	p. 311
References	p. 311
9 Ozonation	p. 315
1 Introduction	p. 315
1.1 General	p. 315
1.2 Alternative Disinfectants	p. 316
2 Properties and Chemistry of Ozone	p. 316
2.1 General	p. 316
2.2 Physical Properties	p. 316
2.3 Chemical Properties	p. 317
2.4 Advantages and Disadvantages	p. 319
3 Applications of Ozone	p. 319
3.1 Disinfection Against Pathogens	p. 319
3.2 Zebra Mussel Abatement	p. 320
3.3 Iron and Manganese Removal	p. 320
3.4 Color Removal	p. 320
3.5 Control of Taste and Odor	p. 321
3.6 Elimination of Organic Chemicals	p. 321
3.7 Control of Algae	p. 321
3.8 Aid in Coagulation and Destabilization of Turbidity	p. 321
4 Process and Design Considerations	p. 321
4.1 Oxygen and Ozone	p. 321
4.2 Disinfection of Water by Ozone	p. 322
4.3 Disinfection of Wastewater by Ozone	p. 324
4.4 Disinfection By-Products	p. 333
4.5 Oxygenation by Ozone	p. 334
4.6 Advanced Oxidation Processes	p. 337
5 Ozonation System	p. 340
5.1 Air Preparation	p. 341
5.2 Electrical Power Supply	p. 344
5.3 Ozone Generation	p. 344
5.4 Ozone Contacting	p. 345
5.5 Destruction of Ozone Contactor Exhaust Gas	p. 348
5.6 Monitors and Controllers	p. 349
6 Costs of Ozonation Systems	p. 349
6.1 Equipment Costs	p. 349
6.2 Installation Costs	p. 352
6.3 Housing Costs	p. 353
6.4 Operating and Maintenance Costs	p. 353
7 Safety	p. 353
Nomenclature	p. 354
References	p. 355
10 Electrolysis	p. 359
1 Introduction	p. 359
2 Mechanisms of Electrolysis	p. 362
3 Organic and Suspended Solids Removal	p. 363
3.1. Organic and Suspended Solids Removal by Regular Electrolysis	p. 363
3.2. Organic and Suspended Solids Removal by Electrocoagulation	p. 364
4 Disinfection	p. 366
5 Phosphate Removal	p. 368
6 Ammonium Removal	p. 369
7 Cyanide Destruction	p. 369
8 Metal Removal	p. 370
9 Remediation of Nitroaromatic Explosives-Contaminated Groundwater	p. 372
10 Electrolysis-Stimulated Biological Treatment	p. 374
10.1 Nitrogen Removal	p. 375
10.2 Electrolytic Oxygen Generation	p. 374
References	p. 376
11 Sedimentation	p. 379
1 Introduction	p. 379
1.1 Historical	p. 379
1.2 Definition and Objective of Sedimentation	p. 380
1.3 Significance of Sedimentation in Water and Wastewater Treatment	p. 380
2 Types of Clarification	p. 380
3 Theory of Sedimentation	p. 381
3.1 Class 1 Clarification	p. 382
3.2 Class 2 Clarification	p. 386
3.3 Zone Settling	p. 387
3.4 Compression Settling	p. 390
4 Sedimentation Tanks in Water Treatment	p. 390
4.1 General Consideration	p. 390
4.2 Inlet and Outlet Control	p. 391
4.3 Tank Geometry	p. 392
4.4 Short Circuiting	p. 392
4.5 Detention Time	p. 392
4.6 Tank Design	p. 393
5 Sedimentation Tanks in Wastewater Treatment	p. 394
5.1 General Consideration and Basis of Design	p. 394
5.2 Regulatory Standards	p. 395
5.3 Tank Types	p. 395
6 Grit Chamber	p. 398
6.1 General	p. 398
6.2 Types of Grit Chambers	p. 399
6.3 Velocity Control Devices	p. 400
6.4 Design of Grit Chamber	p. 402
7 Gravity Thickening in Sludge Treatment	p. 403
7.1 Design of Sludge Thickeners	p. 405
8 Recent Developments	p. 406
8.1 Theory of Shallow Depth Settling	p. 407
8.2 Tube Settlers	p. 409
8.3 Lamella Separator	p. 410
8.4 Other Improvements	p. 411
9 Sedimentation in Air Streams	p. 412
9.1 General	p. 412
9.2 Gravity Settlers	p. 413
10 Costs	p. 414
10.1 General	p. 414
10.2 Sedimentation Tanks	p. 414
10.3 Gravity Thickeners	p. 416
10.4 Tube Settlers	p. 416
11 Design Examples	p. 418
Nomenclature	p. 426
References	p. 427
Appendix: US Yearly Average Cost Index for Utilities	p. 429
12 Dissolved Air Flotation	p. 431
1 Introduction	p. 431
1.1 Adsorptive Bubble Separation Processes	p. 431
1.2 Content and Objectives	p. 434
2 Historical Development of Clarification Processes	p. 435
2.1 Conventional Sedimentation Clarifiers	p. 435
2.2 Innovative Flotation Clarifiers	p. 437
3 Dissolved Air Flotation Process	p. 440
3.1 Process Description	p. 440
3.2 Process Configurations	p. 441
3.3 Factors Affecting Dissolved Air Flotation	p. 443
4 Dissolved Air Flotation Theory	p. 444
4.1 Gas-to-Solids Ratio of Full Flow Pressurization System	p. 444
4.2 Gas-to-Solids Ratio of Partial Flow Pressurization System	p. 446
4.3 Gas-to-Solids Ratio of Recycle Flow Pressurization	p. 447
4.4 Air Solubility in Water at 1 Atm	p. 448
4.5 Pressure Calculations	p. 449
4.6 Hydraulic Loading Rate	p. 449
4.7 Solids Loading Rate	p. 451
5 Design, Operation, and Performance	p. 453
5.1 Operational Parameters	p. 455
5.2 Performance and Reliability	p. 455
6 Chemical Treatment	p. 455
7 Sampling, Tests, and Monitoring	p. 457
7.1 Sampling	p. 457
7.2 Laboratory and Field Tests	p. 457
8 Procedures and Apparatus for Chemical Coagulation Experiments	p. 457
9 Procedures and Apparatus for Laboratory Dissolved Air Flotation Experiments	p. 459
9.1 Full Flow Pressurization System	p. 459
9.2 Partial Flow Pressurization System	p. 460
9.3 Recycle Flow Pressurization System	p. 461
10 Normal Operating Procedures	p. 462
10.1 Physical Control	p. 462
10.2 Startup	p. 463
10.3 Routine Operations	p. 464
10.4 Shutdown	p. 464
11 Emergency Operating Procedures	p. 464
11.1 Loss of Power	p. 464
11.2 Loss of Other Treatment Units	p. 465
12 Operation and Maintenance	p. 465
12.1 Troubleshooting	p. 465
12.2 Labor Requirements	p. 465
12.3 Construction and O&M Costs	p. 465
12.4 Energy Consumption	p. 465
12.5 Maintenance Considerations	p. 466
12.6 Environmental Impact and Safety Considerations	p. 468
13 Recent Developments in Dissolved Air Flotation Technology	p. 468
13.1 General Recent Developments	p. 468
13.2 Physicochemical SBR-DAF Process for Industrial and Municipal Applications	p. 470
13.3 Adsorption Flotation Processes	p. 471
13.4 Dissolved Gas Flotation	p. 471
13.5 Combined Sedimentation and Flotation	p. 472
14 Application and Design Examples	p. 472
Nomenclature	p. 491
Acknowledgments	p. 492
References	p. 493
13 Gravity Filtration	p. 501
1 Introduction	p. 501
2 Physical Nature of Gravity Filtration	p. 502
2.1 Transport Mechanism	p. 502
2.2 Attachment Mechanisms	p. 504
2.3 Detachment Mechanisms	p. 504
3 Mathematical Models	p. 504
3.1 Idealized Models	p. 505
3.2 Empirical Models	p. 509
4 Design Considerations of Gravity Filters	p. 510
4.1 Water Variables	p. 510
4.2 Filter Physical Variables	p. 511
4.3 Filter Operating Variables	p. 517
5 Applications	p. 522
5.1 Potable Water Filtration	p. 522
5.2 Reclamation of Wasterwater	p. 522
6 Design Examples	p. 527
Nomenclature	p. 539
References	p. 540
14 Polymeric Adsorption and Regenerant Distillation	p. 545
1 Introduction	p. 545
2 Polymeric Adsorption Process Description	p. 547
2.1 Process System	p. 547
2.2 Process Steps	p. 547
2.3 Regeneration Issues	p. 547
3 Polymeric Adsorption Applications and Evaluation	p. 548
3.1 Applications	p. 548
3.2 Process Evaluation	p. 550
4 Polymeric Adsorbents	p. 550
4.1 Chemical Structure	p. 550
4.2 Physical Properties	p. 552
4.3 Adsorption Properties	p. 552
5 Design Considerations	p. 552
5.1 Adsorption Bed, Adsorbents, and Regenerants	p. 552
5.2 Generated Residuals	p. 555
6 Distillation	p. 557
6.1 Distillation Process Description	p. 557
6.2 Distillation Types and Modifications	p. 557
6.3 Distillation Process Evaluation	p. 560
7 Design and Application Examples	p. 560
Acknowledgments	p. 570
References	p. 571
15 Granular Activated Carbon Adsorption	p. 573
1 Introduction	p. 573
2 Process Flow Diagrams for GAC Process	p. 576
3 Adsorption Column Models	p. 577
4 Design of Granular Activated Carbon Columns	p. 585
4.1 Design of GAC Columns	p. 585
4.2 Pilot Plant and Laboratory Column Tests	p. 590
5 Regeneration	p. 591
6 Factors Affecting GAC Adsorption	p. 592
6.1 Adsorbent Characteristics	p. 592
6.2 Adsorbate Characteristics	p. 592
7 Performance and Case Studies	p. 593
8 Economics of Granular Activated Carbon System	p. 595
9 Design Examples	p. 602
10 Historical and Recent Developments in Granular Activated Carbon Adsorption	p. 623
10.1 Adsorption Technology Milestones	p. 623
10.2 Downflow Conventional Biological GAC Systems	p. 625
10.3 Upflow Fluidized Bed Biological GAC System	p. 627
Nomenclature	p. 628
References	p. 630
16 Physicochemical Treatment Processes for Water Reuse	p. 635
1 Introduction	p. 635
2 Conventional Physicochemical Treatment Processes	p. 636
2.1 Principle	p. 636
2.2 Application of the Physicochemical Processes in Wastewater Treatment and Reuse	p. 651
3 Membrane Processes	p. 658
3.1 Principle	p. 658
3.2 Application of Membrane Processes	p. 661
References	p. 675
17 Introduction to Sludge Treatment	p. 677
1 The Origin of Sludge	p. 677
2 Conditioning Processes	p. 678
2.1 Coagulation	p. 678
2.2 Flocculation	p. 681
2.3 Conditioner Choice	p. 681
2.4 Optimal Dose	p. 682
3 Dewatering Processes	p. 684
3.1 Dewatering Processes	p. 684
3.2 Sludge Thickening	p. 685
3.3 Sludge Dewatering	p. 687
4 Stabilization Processes	p. 691
4.1 Hydrolysis Processes	p. 691
4.2 Digestion Processes	p. 695
5 Thermal Processes	p. 699
5.1 Sludge Incineration	p. 699
5.2 Sludge Drying	p. 701
5.3 Other Thermal Processes	p. 702
References	p. 703
Index	p. 705

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