Power quality : mitigation technologies in a distributed environment

Electrical energy is one of the main elements for the economical development of society. The just aspirations of modern societies to economical growth have forced us to secure more continual energy resources. On the other hand, climate change and international treaties aiming to reduce greenhouse gas emissions have prompted all of us to be increasingly concerned about energy efficiency and conservation. With the rapid growth of the information-based economy, widespread expansion of electronic devices has become a prevalent phenomenon in both the public and private sectors. Their suitability to perform various functions such as storage, management, processing and exchange of digital data and information, are essential support for information and communication technology (ICT). Although the consumption of energy may increase, influenced by the increase in the necessary communications infrastructure, the use of renewable energy may contribute to a more rational consumption of energy, reducing the impact on the environment. The current trend toward miniaturization in microelectronics, increased processing speed and greater functionality results in a particular sensitiveness to certain kinds of electromagnetic perturbations. Thus, this situation is not only bringing about a greater demand for electricity, but in addition higher levels of power quality and reliability (PQR) needs, in quantities and time frames that have not been experienced before.

Author Notes

Dr Antonio Moreno-Muñoz is a full professor at the Department of Electrical and Electronics Engineering, Universidad de Córdoba, Spain, where he is Chair of the Industrial Electronics and Power Quality R&D Group. Dr Moreno-Muñoz received his Ph.D. and B.Sc. degrees from UNED "Universidad Nacional de Educación a Distancia", Spain in 1998 and 1992 respectively. Since 1992 he has been at the Universidad de Córdoba. His research interests are focused on power quality, power electronics, electronic instrumentation, and usability of complex systems.

List of Contributors	p. xix
1 Introduction	p. 1
1.1 Introduction	p. 1
1.2 Electromagnetic Compatibility	p. 2
1.3 Power-quality	p. 6
References	p. 14
2 Power-quality Monitoring	p. 15
2.1 Introduction	p. 15
2.2 State-of-the-art	p. 16
2.2.1 Historical Background	p. 16
2.2.2 General-purpose Instrumentation	p. 16
2.2.3 Specialised-purpose Instrumentation	p. 17
2.3 Instrumentation Architecture	p. 20
2.3.1 Safety Use of PQ Instrumentation	p. 21
2.3.2 Number of Channels	p. 23
2.3.3 Common Unified Channels	p. 24
2.3.4 Independent Input Channels	p. 25
2.3.5 Transducers	p. 25
2.3.6 Signal-conditioning Module	p. 29
2.3.7 Analog-to-digital Converter	p. 30
2.3.8 Signal-processing Module	p. 30
2.4 PQ Instrumentation Regulations	p. 31
2.5 Harmonic Monitoring	p. 33
2.6 Flicker Monitoring	p. 35
2.7 Data Postprocessing	p. 35
2.8 Management of PQ Files	p. 37
2.8.1 COMTRADE	p. 37
2.8.2 PQDIF	p. 37
2.9 Summary	p. 38
References	p. 38
3 Joint Time Frequency Analysis of the Electrical Signal	p. 41
3.1 Introduction	p. 41
3.2 Application of JTFA to Electrical Signals	p. 44
3.3 Review of Fundamental Mathematical Tools	p. 46
3.3.1 Fourier Theory	p. 47
3.4 Time Frequency Analysis Limits: Uncertainty Principle	p. 49
3.5 JTFA Linear Methods	p. 52
3.5.1 Windowed Fourier Transform (STFT) and Gabor Expansion	p. 52
3.5.2 Adaptive Representation and Adaptive Transform	p. 56
3.5.3 Wavelet Theory	p. 57
3.6 Time-dependent Spectrum: Quadratic Transforms	p. 62
3.6.1 STFT Spectrogram	p. 62
3.6.2 Wigner-Ville Distribution and Pseudo-Wigner Ville Distribution	p. 64
3.6.3 Cohen Class	p. 65
3.6.4 Choi Williams Distribution	p. 66
3.6.5 Conic Distribution	p. 66
3.6.6 Gabor Spectrogram	p. 66
3.6.7 Adaptive Spectrogram	p. 67
3.7 Algorithms Summary	p. 68
References	p. 71
4 Measurement and Analysis of Voltage Events	p. 73
4.1 Introduction	p. 73
4.2 Monitoring of Voltage Events	p. 75
4.2.1 Performance of the IEC Standard Method in the Detection and Evaluation of Voltage Events	p. 76
4.2.2 Other Methods for the Detection and Evaluation of Voltage Events	p. 80
4.3 Effects of Voltage Events on Equipment	p. 90
4.3.1 Voltage Tolerance of Equipment	p. 91
4.3.2 Measurement System	p. 92
4.3.3 Effect of Harmonic Distortion	p. 94
4.4 Voltage-event Surveys	p. 96
References	p. 100
5 Transient Mitigation Methods on ASDs	p. 103
5.1. Introduction	p. 103
5.2. Transient analysis	p. 105
5.2.1 Analysis of CST Events	p. 105
5.3 Traditional Transient Mitigation Methods on ASDs	p. 111
5.3.1 Review of Power System Mitigation Techniques	p. 111
5.4 New Mitigation Methods	p. 114
5.4.1 Proposed Approaches to Mitigate Nuisance Tripping of CST Events	p. 114
5.5 Example of Experimental Results	p. 119
5.5.1 Design Example	p. 119
5.5.2 Simulation Results	p. 121
5.5.3 Experimental Results	p. 122
5.6. Conclusions	p. 127
References	p. 127
6 Modern Arrangement for Reduction of Voltage Perturbations	p. 129
6.1 Introduction	p. 129
6.2 Influence of Load on the Power-quality	p. 130
6.2.1 Investigation Results	p. 133
6.2.2 Other Important Influences of Loads	p. 136
6.3 Reduction on Load Influence on the Voltage Profile	p. 140
6.3.1 Principle Compensation of the Load Influence	p. 141
6.3.2 Review of Selection Problems	p. 144
6.4 Mitigation of the Voltage Disturbance	p. 155
6.4.1 Basic Concept and Methodological Questions	p. 155
6.4.2 Modern Protection and Reconfiguration Devices	p. 156
6.4.3 Compensation Devices	p. 160
6.4.4 Immunisation - Standby Power-supply Devices	p. 164
6.5 Usability of the Modern Power Electronics	p. 167
6.5.1 General Model of Power-electronics Converters	p. 168
6.5.2 Basic 3-phase Power-electronics Converters with AC Output	p. 171
6.5.3 Multilevel Voltage Inverters as Arrangement to MV Grid	p. 176
6.6 Summary	p. 179
References	p. 179
7 Static Shunt PE Voltage-quality Controllers	p. 183
7.1 Fundamentals of Shunt Compensation	p. 183
7.2 Distribution Static Var Compensator (D-SVC)	p. 186
7.2.1 Simple D-SVC Controllers	p. 186
7.2.2 Combined D-SVC Controllers	p. 187
7.3 Distribution Static Synchronous Compensator (D-STATCOM)	p. 188
7.3.1 Topology	p. 188
7.3.2 Principle of Operation	p. 190
7.3.3 Load Compensation	p. 192
7.3.4 Voltage Regulation	p. 195
7.4 Other Shunt Controllers Based on D-STATCOM	p. 197
7.4.1 Hybrid Arrangements	p. 198
7.4.2 Controllers with Energy-storage Systems	p. 200
7.5 Summary	p. 202
References	p. 203
8 Static Series and Shunt-series PE Voltage-quality Controllers	p. 205
8.1 Distribution Static Synchronous Series Compensators	p. 206
8.1.1 Identification of Separate Components of the Supply-terminal Voltage	p. 207
8.1.2 Harmonic Filtration and Balancing of the Voltage in 3-wire Systems	p. 210
8.2 Dynamic Voltage Restorer (DVR)	p. 213
8.2.1 What It Is a DVR	p. 213
8.2.2 Control Strategies of the DVR Arrangements	p. 213
8.2.3 Comparison of the DVR Types	p. 216
8.3 AC/AC Voltage Regulators	p. 221
8.3.1 Electromechanical Voltage Regulators	p. 222
8.3.2 Step-voltage Regulators	p. 223
8.3.2 Continuous-voltage Regulators	p. 224
8.4 Summary	p. 227
References	p. 228
9 Active Power Line Conditioners	p. 231
9.1. Introduction	p. 231
9.2. Power-quality and Active Power Filters	p. 233
9.2.1. Distribution Static Compensator, DSTATCOM	p. 234
9.2.2. Series Active Filters	p. 235
9.2.3. Hybrid Filters	p. 236
9.2.4. Unified Power-quality Conditioner	p. 237
9.3 Power-electronic Inverters in APLCs	p. 238
9.3.1. Voltage-source Inverter Topologies	p. 240
9.3.2. Control of Voltage-source Inverters	p. 250
9.4 Strategies for Load Static Compensation	p. 262
9.4.1. Instantaneous Reactive Power Theory	p. 262
9.4.2. Instantaneous d-q Theory	p. 267
9.5 Practical Design	p. 268
9.5.1. Component-design Considerations	p. 269
9.5.2. Simulation Analysis	p. 272
9.6 APLC Prototyped Trough PC Acquisition Board	p. 276
9.6.1. Experimental System	p. 277
9.6.2. Results of a Practical Case	p. 283
References	p. 287
10 Distributed Generation	p. 293
10.1 Introduction	p. 293
10.2 General Impact of Distributed Generation on Power-quality to Strong or Weak Electrical Systems	p. 296
10.3 Dissimilar Effect of the Different Distributed Resources Technologies	p. 296
10.4 Coordination between Overcurrent Protection and Sensitive Equipment Voltage Sag Immunity	p. 296
10.4.1 Application of Specific Energy Concept	p. 298
10.4.2 Transformation of Protective Device Time-Current Curves into Time-Voltage Curves, for Voltage-sag Coordination Studies	p. 300
10.4.3 Mitigation of Distant Voltage Sag Penetration into Industrial Premises by Using Semirigid Connection	p. 314
10.4.4 New Overcurrent-protection Schemes using Intelligence	p. 317
10.5 Impact of DG on Recloser-Fuse Coordination	p. 319
10.6 Harmonics Generated by Distributed Generators	p. 320
10.7 Flicker Due to Wind Gusts and Tower Shadow	p. 321
10.8 Ferroresonant Overvoltages	p. 322
10.9 Conclusions	p. 323
References	p. 323
11 Electronic Loads and Power-quality	p. 325
11.1. Introduction	p. 325
11.2. Electromagnetic Disturbances	p. 328
11.3. The Rabanales Campus Case Study	p. 328
11.4. The Infrico Case Study	p. 331
11.5. Mitigations Technologies	p. 335
11.6. The Improvement of Electronic Power Supplies	p. 339
11.7. Conclusion	p. 349
References	p. 350
12 Power-quality Factor for Electrical Networks	p. 353
12.1 Quality of the Electrical Signal	p. 355
12.2 Quantitative Formulations of Power-quality Aspects	p. 356
12.2.1 System-frequency Variations	p. 356
12.2.2 Total Current and Voltage Harmonic Distortion	p. 357
12.2.3 Degree of Unbalance	p. 358
12.2.4 Phase Displacements Between Corresponding Fundamental Voltage and Currents	p. 359
12.3 Voltage-quality Factor and Power-quality Factor	p. 361
12.3.1 Definition of the Power-quality Factor	p. 361
12.3.2 Definition of the Voltage-quality Factor	p. 362
12.4 Measurement of PQF and VQF	p. 363
12.5 Illustrative Use of the Power-quality Factor	p. 365
12.6 Quantitative Formulations of Power-quality Aspects Under Transient State Conditions	p. 369
12.6.1 Fourier Analysis Versus Time Frequency analysis for Power-quality	p. 369
12.6.2 Time Frequency-based Transient Quality Aspects (TQA)	p. 371
12.6.3 Procedure to Obtain the Transient Quality Aspect	p. 373
12.6.4 Application Example of Transient Disturbance	p. 374
References	p. 375
13 IEC 61850 and Power-quality Monitoring and Recording	p. 379
13.1 Introduction	p. 379
13.2 What is IEC 61850?	p. 380
13.3 Logical Interfaces and Distributed Applications	p. 384
13.4 Functional Hierarchy	p. 386
13.5 The IEC 61850 Model	p. 387
13.6 Distribution and Modelling of Functions in Power-quality Monitoring Devices	p. 392
13.6.1 Logical Nodes for Measurements	p. 396
13.6.2 Logical Nodes for Power-quality Events	p. 398
13.6.3 Logical Nodes for Recording	p. 399
13.7 Power-quality Event Analysis in IEC 61850-based Systems	p. 399
13.8 Recording of Power-quality-events	p. 403
13.8.1 Waveform Recording	p. 404
13.8.2 High and Low-speed Disturbance Recording	p. 404
13.8.3 Periodic Measurement Logging	p. 405
13.9 Recording Systems for Power-quality Event Analysis	p. 405
13.10 Performance Requirements	p. 408
13.11 High-speed Peer-to-peer Communications Applications	p. 409
References	p. 414
Index	p. 417

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